Toltec Empire - Semi-Mythical Legend of the Aztecs

The Toltecs and the Toltec Empire is a semi-mythical legend reported by the Aztecs that appears to have had some reality in prehispanic Mesoamerica. But the evidence for its existence as a cultural entity is conflicting and contradictory. The empire, if thats what it was (and it probably was not), has been at the heart of a long-standing debate in archaeology: where is the ancient city of Tollan, a city described by the Aztecs in oral and pictorial histories as the center of all art and wisdom? And who were the Toltecs, the legendary rulers of this glorious city? Fast Facts: Toltec Empire The Toltec Empire was a semi-mythical origin story told by the Aztecs.  Aztec oral histories described the Toltec capital Tollan as having buildings made of jade and gold.  The Toltecs were said to have invented all the arts and sciences of the Aztecs, and their leaders were the noblest and wisest of people.  Archaeologists associated Tula with Tollan, but the Aztecs were ambivalent about where the capital was.   The Aztec Myth of the Toltecs Aztec oral histories and their surviving codexes describe the Toltecs as wise, civilized, wealthy urban people  who lived in Tollan, a city filled with buildings made of jade and gold. The Toltecs, said the historians, invented all the arts and sciences of Mesoamerica, including the Mesoamerican calendar; they were led by their wise king Quetzalcoatl. For the Aztecs, the Toltec leader was the ideal ruler, a noble warrior who was learned in the history and priestly duties of Tollan and had the qualities of military and commercial leadership. The Toltec rulers led a warrior society that included a storm god (Aztec  Tlaloc or Maya  Chaac), with Quetzalcoatl at the heart of the origin myth. The Aztec leaders claimed they were descendants of the Toltec leaders, establishing a semi-divine right to rule. The Myth of Quetzalcoatl The Aztec accounts of the Toltec myth say that Ce Acatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl was a wise, old humble king who taught his people to write and measure time, to work gold, jade, and feathers, to grow cotton, dye it and weave it into fabulous mantles, and to raise maize and cacao. In the 15th century, the Aztecs said he was born in the year 1 Reed (equivalent to the year 843 CE) and died 52 years later in the year 1 Reed (895 CE). He built four houses for fasting and prayer and a temple with beautiful columns carved with serpent reliefs. But his piety excited anger among the sorcerers of Tollan, who were intent on destroying his people. The sorcerers tricked Quetzalcoatl into drunken behavior that shamed him so he fled east, reaching the edge of the sea. There, dressed in divine feathers and a turquoise mask, he burned himself up and rose into the sky, becoming the morning star. Quetzalcoatl, the Toltec and Aztec god; the plumed serpent, god of the wind, learning and the priesthood, master of life, creator and civiliser, patron of every art and inventor of metallurgy (manuscript). Bridgeman Art Library / Getty Images Aztec accounts dont all agree: at least one says that Quetzalcoatl destroyed Tollan as he left, burying all the marvelous things and burning everything else. He changed the cacao trees to mesquite and sent the birds to Anahuac, another legendary land at the edge of the water. The story as recounted by Bernardino Sahagà ºn (1499–1590)—who certainly had his own agenda—says that Quetzalcoatl fashioned a raft of serpents and sailed across the sea. Sahagà ºn was a Spanish Franciscan friar, and he and other chroniclers are today believed to have created the myth associating Quetzalcoatl with the conquistador  Cortes-—but thats another story. Toltecs and Desirà ©e Charnay The site of Tula in Hidalgo state was first equated with Tollan in the archaeological sense in the late 19th century—the Aztecs were ambivalent about which set of ruins was Tollan, although Tula was certainly known to them. French expeditionary photographer Desirà ©e Charnay (1828–1915) raised money to follow the legendary journey of Quetzalcoatl from Tula eastward to the Yucatan peninsula. When he arrived at the Maya capital of Chichà ©n Itzà ¡, he noticed serpent columns and a ball court ring that reminded him of those he had seen at Tula, 800 miles (1,300 kilometers) northwest of Chichen. The ruins of the Toltec site Tula were one of the ancient archaeological sites in the Basin of Mexico that awed the arriving Mexica and inspired their growth into the Aztec Empire. Travel Ink / Getty Images Charnay had read the 16th century Aztec accounts and noted that the Toltec were thought by the Aztecs to have created civilization, and he interpreted the architectural and stylistic similarities to mean that the capital city of the Toltecs  was Tula, with Chichen Itza its remote and conquered colony; and by the 1940s, a majority of archaeologists did too. But since that time, archaeological and historical evidence has shown that to be problematic. Problems, and a Trait List There are lots of problems trying to associate Tula or any other specific set of ruins as Tollan. Tula was fairly large but it didnt have much control over its close neighbors, let alone long distances. Teotihuacan, which definitely was large enough to be reckoned an empire, was long gone by the 9th century. There are lots of places throughout Mesoamerica with linguistic references to Tula or Tollan or Tullin or Tulan: Tollan Chollolan is the full name for Cholula, for example, which has some Toltec aspects. The word seems to mean something like place of reeds. And even though the traits identified as Toltec appear at many sites along the Gulf Coast and elsewhere, there isnt much evidence for military conquest; the adoption of Toltec traits appears to have been selective, rather than imposed. Traits identified as Toltec include temples with colonnaded galleries; tablud-tablero architecture; chacmools and ball courts; relief sculptures with various versions of the mythical Quetzalcoatl jaguar-serpent-bird icon; and relief images of predatory animals and raptorial birds holding human hearts. There are also Atlantean pillars with images of men in the Toltec military outfit (also seen in chacmools): wearing pillbox helmets and butterfly-shaped pectorals and carrying atlatls. There is also a form of government that is part of the Toltec package, a council-based government rather than a centralized kingship, but where that arose is anybodys guess. Some of the Toltec traits can be traced to the Early Classic period, of 4th century AD or even earlier. Atlantean warriors, Temple of Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, archaeological site of Tula, Mexico. Toltec Civilisation. De Agostini / C. Novara / Getty Images Current Thinking It seems clear that although there is no real consensus among the archaeological community about the existence of a single Tollan or a specific Toltec Empire that can be identified, there was some sort of inter-regional flow of ideas throughout Mesoamerica that archaeologists have named Toltec. Its possible, perhaps likely, that much of that flow of ideas came about as a byproduct of the establishment of inter-regional trade networks, trade networks including such materials as obsidian and salt which were established by the 4th century CE (and probably much earlier) but really kicked into gear after the fall of Teotihuacan in 750 CE. So, the word Toltec should be removed from the word empire, certainly: and perhaps the best way to look at the concept is as a Toltec ideal, an art style, philosophy and form of government that acted as the exemplary center of all that was perfect and longed for by the Aztecs, an ideal echoed at other sites and cultures throughout Mesoamerica. Selected Sources Berdan, Frances F. Aztec Archaeology and Ethnohistory. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.  Iverson, Shannon Dugan. The Enduring Toltecs: History and Truth During the Aztec-to-Colonial Transition at Tula, Hidalgo. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 24.1 (2017): 90–116. Print.Kowalski, Jeff Karl, and Cynthia Kristan-Graham, eds. Twin Tollans: Chichà ©n Itzà ¡, Tula and the Epiclassic to Early Postclassic Mesoamerican World. Washington DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 2011.  Ringle, William M., Tomas Gallareta Negron, and George J. Bey. The Return of Quetzalcoatl: Evidence for the Spread of a World Religion During the Epiclassic Period. Ancient Mesoamerica 9 (1998): 183-–232.  Smith, Michael E. The Aztecs. 3rd ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.  ---. Toltec Empire. The Encyclopedia of Empire. Ed. MacKenzie, John M. London: John Wiley Sons, Ltd., 2016.

Asimov s Short Stories Reason - 1932 Words

Roshan Mirajkar PHIL 253 Midterm Essay October 10th, 2015 Asimov’s short story â€Å"Reason† in I, Robot contains many Cartesian themes. Please interpret the short story using Descartes’ Meditations I, II, and III. Please use quotes from both texts to demonstrate your points. Does Asimov support or call into question the methods and results of Descartes’ thought experiment? Explain. Cogito ergo sum Asimov’s short story â€Å"Reason† in I, Robot is about a fictional robot character which uses reason to perceive and question its own existence. Similarly to Descartes, a robot named â€Å"QT† embarks on a philosophical journey to rid himself of any preconceived beliefs and ideas that cannot be confirmed(verified?) for certain, accepting only axiomatic principles. Although Descartes and QT live in different time periods and environments, they both challenge their current society’s belief systems and the macro view of existence itself which leads them to different conclusions about the world they exist in. Cutie goes through three phases of philosophical belief shift, each representing one three Descartes meditations. In the short story â€Å"Reason†, Asimov supports the ideas portrayed in the first three meditations explored by Descartes, through the use of themes, symbolism, and Cutie’s actions, which dawns new light on the concept of creat ion and existence. The short story begins with Cutie questioning the creation of his existence which represents Descartes first meditation. When Cutie isShow MoreRelatedEssay on The Origin of Robots1338 Words   |  6 PagesThe Origin of Robots Over the years mankind has advanced greatly in the field of technology and day by day we continue to advance. 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Plagiarism Plagiarism And Plagiarism - 815 Words

There are many types of plagiarism, including several scenarios of inadvertent and deliberate plagiarism. This essay will discuss how plagiarism is defined, the various types of plagiarism, why plagiarism is such a serious problem, the impact of the internet on academic integrity, and how plagiarism can be avoided. It will also provide suggestions on ways to eliminate both inadvertent and deliberate plagiarism. There are several ways to define plagiarism. One such definition, according to the Regis rubric is, â€Å"theft of intellectual property†. There are several ways an individual can plagiarize work. Whether it is direct plagiarism, paraphrasing an individual’s work without acknowledging the original author, or using the majority of someone else’s work but rearranging the order and replacing words and phrases with one’s own thoughts. It is also even possible to self-plagiarizing one’s own work by reusing work previously submitted. As such, because there are several types of plagiarism, it truly goes beyond the above noted definition. Since one can resubmit previous work, this cannot be deemed stealing intellectual property. But rather should be defined as integrating published or unpublished theory, concept, or work into one’s own personal work with or without approval, whether intentional or unintentional. This definition broadens the definitio n of plagiarism by the addition of passing off one’s own previous work as original. Next we will cover why plagiarism is such anShow MoreRelatedPlagiarism And The Ethics Of Plagiarism926 Words   |  4 Pagesand parents have heard the term â€Å"plagiarism† while talking about writing essays, poems, and other works. Plagiarism is defined as â€Å"to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as one s own† by Merriam-Webster dictionary. 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Values of Leadership In Business Samples †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Values of Leadership In Business. Answer: Introduction Leadership is an important element in the business because it maintains the relationship between employees and employer. The role of leaders is to guide their followers in an appropriate manner in which they make able themselves to recognize that what is wrong and what is right. It is required for the leaders to adapt the various theories and qualities to handle the workforce of the business in an efficient manner. It will reflect the self awareness of leadership in the business along with the strength and weaknesses of the values of leadership. The opportunities and barriers will be mentioned in this report. Leadership skills It has been analyzed that leadership skill must have in the leader to handle the various situations in the business. A leadership skill involves the motivation, delegation, positivity, and trustworthiness, clarity in communication, feedback and responsibility. Leaders must have the quality of good values and ethics to connect with vital situations through making the followers understand regarding bad habits such as smoking or drinking in the premises of organization should be prohibited (Adair, 2013). The activities of leaders has been observed while working, he engages with the team member and handle every situations patiently whether its supportive or non-supportive by his end. Leader should not misbehave with his employee and always support them to accomplish the task. I learned that leader has the ability to change the working environment by giving support to his followers. It will give me satisfactory resolutions. Leadership is able to encourage my motivation and productivity an d help me to attain the goal progressively (Syed, Bandara, French Stewart, 2016). Perceptions My perceptions are similar of the person with whom I share my assessment. Leadership is important tool to manage the situations of the organization. Clear communication, directions and goals should be clear of leader. Communication is the backbone of the managing the conversation of the management and leader should have the excellent communication skills so that companys vision and mission can be conveyed to the employee in clear manner (Simha, Armstrong Albert, 2012). Direction and goals must be decisive as per the person with whom I shared my assessment so that the leader of the organization will not face any issues to share the goals of the company with the followers. My perception is different because it is not possible that leaders get every step and task easy, leaders should have the skills to make the tough description into easiest manner so that all the employees get better understanding regarding the goals and objectives of the company. Leadership styles There are various leadership styles which have been followed by leaders to encourage their followers for accomplishing the target within time frame. I as a leader follow transformational leadership style that refers the involvement of other employee in the decision making. It enhances the confidence of the employee and gives them job satisfaction because it is necessary for the organization to make employee feel that they are working at safer place. It is the leadership which builds social and creative changes in the organization (Nahavandi, 2016). By using the various motivation techniques, transformational leadership is able to enhance the motivation of the employees. There are four elements of transformational leadership that is individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation and idealized influence (Selcer, Goodman, Decker, 2012). Due to use the style of transformational, it influences the employees effectively because I act as a coach and mentor with my followers and considers their needs and concerns on prior basis (Longenecker Fink, 2015). I give empathy and support and keep communication open to all my followers so that they could not get hesitate to share their views ad ideas. I involve intellectual stimulation in my leadership style that refers the risk and solicit followers ideas. I nurture people who have the ability to think independently. I motivate my followers ad invest my time to develop their skills. I give preference to the ethical behaviour and in case of any issues or conflicts, as per companys norms and policies I will take action against them who breaches the policy of an organization. Implementation of personal leadership plan Personal leadership plan of mine can be implemented if I focus to my strength for reducing the weaknesses of mine. I analyzed myself and found that my communication skills, positive attitude, creativity and delegation are my strength. The issues arise in the organization when the employees of the organization are unable to understand the objectives and goals of the company, I am able to convey the objectives and goals of the organization in front of them in an appropriate way and delegate the responsibilities as per their abilities. My positive attitude will enhance the productivity of the employee and make them sure that they are working at safe place, along with that positive attitude will be helpful for job satisfaction. Creativity of the leader brings the innovation in the organization and without innovation employee of the company might be got bored with their daily work and their learning skills will stop (Mabey Mayrhofer, 2015). The opportunities of this leadership plan can b e the growth of an organization as well as mine in effective manner. Good environment will bring the opportunity to make changes in the organization with new technology so that physical efforts can be reduced. Good leaders are able to see the potential risk and implement the plan in that way so that risk could not get hampered the organization. With new opportunities in the organization will be the reason of motivation for the employees and they will stay with company longer which will enhance the credibility of the organization (Chang, Chen Chiou, 2015). There are so many barriers which may cause the growth of the company. Refusing help, not asking for the right things, lack of functional and process credibility are certain barriers which may lead the organization adversely. I will not deny for help to my followers regarding organizational work and update myself about their activity and target so that time to time I will ensure and motivate them. I will implement of personal leade rship plan with good efficient manner. Conclusion It has been concluded that leadership is consider as the management tool which is necessary for the business to satisfy their employees by their job. It is the report which has been discussed the quality of leaders and leadership skills as well as the self awareness. I have learned that being a good leader is not easy but by following transformational leadership I can win the trust of employees and motivate them towards accomplish the goals. Certainly, I have weaknesses but with the help of my strength I will reduce and bring the various opportunities in the organization for not only in the favor of organization but also for the workers. References Adair, J. (2013). Develop Your Leadership Skills. Philadelhia : Kogan Page Publishers,. Chang, T. Z., Chen, S. J., Chiou, J. S. (2015). Management Leadership Behavior and Market Orientation: The Relationship and Their Effects on Organization Effectiveness and Business Performance. InMarketing, Technology and Customer Commitment in the New Economy(pp. 276-281). Springer, Cham. Day, D. (2014). The Oxford Handbook of Leadership and Organizations. New York: Oxford University Press. Longenecker, C., Fink, L. S. (2015). Exceptional HR leadership rests on four foundations: Business acumen, trust, expertise and culture make up the cornerstones.Human Resource Management International Digest,23(1), 21-24. Mabey, C., Mayrhofer, W. (2015).Developing leadership: questions business schools don't ask. Sage. Nahavandi, A. (2016).The Art and Science of Leadership -Global Edition. Pearson. Selcer, A., Goodman, G., Decker, P. J. (2012). Fostering Transformational Leadership in Business and Health Administration Education through Appreciative Inquiry Coaching.Business Education Innovation Journal,4(2). Simha, A., Armstrong, J. P., Albert, J. F. (2012). Who leads and who lags? A comparison of cheating attitudes and behaviors among leadership and business students.Journal of Education for Business,87(6), 316-324. Syed, R., Bandara, W., French, E., Stewart, G. (2016). The status of research on leadership in business process management: A call for action.